There are many alcoholic beverages around the world. These drinks have long histories and spread across countries through human migration. Sake is truly Japan’s own traditional alcohol. While sake also has a rich history and was enjoyed by people in various regions in ancient times. Let’s take a closer look at the history of sake.
The Origins of Alcohol and Ancient Sake
The oldest known alcoholic beverage today is believed to come from a jar discovered at the Jiahu ruins in China, dating back to around 7000 BCE. Analysis of the residue inside revealed that it contained rice, honey, grapes, and hawthorn fruit. It was likely a fermented drink that combined elements of wine, mead, and rice beer.
Other evidence, such as depictions of beer on Mesopotamian pottery, also shows that alcohol has had a very long relationship with humanity. In ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, beer was consumed in daily life, while wine was used in sacred rituals. In Japan, the oldest alcoholic beverage is thought to be a fruit wine. This is based on the discovery of seeds from wild grapes and raspberries found inside pottery from the mid-Jomon period (around 13000BCE to 2300BCE) at the Idojiri ruins in Nagano Prefecture.
The Origins of Beer Trace Back to Mesopotamia
Around 4000 BCE, during the flourishing of the Sumerian civilization in ancient Mesopotamia, a beer-like beverage was already being brewed. Early cuneiform texts include logograms such as "kaš" and "sikaru," which refer to beer. Barley, one of Mesopotamia’s main agricultural products, was not only a staple food but also a key ingredient in making beer (sikaru). A common brewing method involved placing water into a large jar, then adding “beer bread” (bappir) made from barley along with malt, and allowing the mixture to ferment naturally. A variation of this process used emmer wheat instead of barley; beer made from emmer was considered higher in quality and was used as offerings to the gods. The Sumerians also modified the taste and type of beer by adjusting the baking of the “bappir” and the grain mixture. This resulted in different varieties such as “barley beer,” “white beer,” “black beer,” and “red beer.” They also added spices, dates, honey, and other ingredients to create a wide range of flavors, showing that beer was an important source of enjoyment for the Sumerians. This brewing technology eventually spread from ancient Egypt to Europe. During the Middle Ages, monasteries became the centers of beer production. The beer, often made with medicinal herbs, was rich in nutrients and even used for medicinal purposes. This led to its widespread popularity among the general population, and eventually to the development of distinct beer styles in regions like Germany and Belgium, where beer culture took root and flourished.
Naturally Fermented Wine
Grapes, the main ingredient of wine, have existed long before the emergence of humankind. Around 130 million years ago, seed-bearing plants that produce fruit first appeared, followed by the budding yeast “Saccharomyces cerevisiae”, which thrives on such fruits. This alcohol-producing yeast is often found in sugar-rich environments, such as on the skins of fruit. It’s believed that our ancestors likely tasted naturally fermented alcoholic drinks and, over time, began intentionally producing them.
Given that wine is mentioned in the “Epic of Gilgamesh”—considered the world’s oldest piece of literature—it's clear that by around 2000 BCE, winemaking techniques had already been established. However, evidence suggests that wine may have been produced as early as 6000 BCE. The most widely accepted theory is that wine originated in the Caucasus region, including present-day Georgia, where many wild grape varieties still grow naturally.
Winemaking spread from this region through the Phoenicians, who lived near present-day Lebanon. They carried wine culture to Egypt, then to Greece, and eventually across Europe. In ancient times, when clean water was scarce due to a lack of water infrastructure, wine was often consumed as a safer alternative. Its use expanded particularly alongside the spread of Christianity, with churches playing a central role in wine production for religious rituals.
During the Age of Exploration in the 16th century, wine was introduced to various parts of the world, and winemaking began to take root globally.
History of Sake
The ingredients of sake are rice, rice koji, and water. This means that sake brewing likely began around the time rice cultivation was introduced to Japan. The cultivation of “japonica” rice, which is the type primarily consumed in Japan today, is believed to have originated in the Yangtze River region of China. There are various theories about how it made its way to Japan—through the Korean Peninsula, across the Tsushima Strait, or island-hopping via Taiwan. Regardless of the route, rice cultivation reached Japan during the Jomon period (around 13000BCE to 2300BCE).
By the Kofun period (around 300 to 600), wet-rice fields had been developed, and paddy-based agriculture appears to have spread throughout the country.
The Origins of Sake
It is not clear exactly when or in which region rice-based sake brewing began, but historical records do mention the production of alcohol.
Kojiki (around 712)
In Japanese mythology, there is a story of Susanoo-no-Mikoto brewing sake to defeat the Yamata no Orochi serpent. The sake mentioned here, called “Yashiori no Sake”, is an ancient reference that hints at the origins of sake brewing. However, some believe it was more like a type of “kijoshu” (a richer sake), or that it may not have been made from rice but rather from nuts or fruits.
Oosuminokunifudoki (After 713)
Rice was heated and then chewed in the mouth, where enzymes in saliva converted the starches into sugars, and wild yeast fermented it into alcohol. Since this process was carried out only by priestesses, the sake may have been considered sacred.
Harimanokunifudoki (around 713)
Sacred dried rice became damp and molded, so sake was brewed from it and offered to the deity as “niwaki “, followed by a banquet. Because it involved using moldy rice, this can be considered the origin of sake in Japan.
Thus, using steamed rice and koji as ingredients, alcohol fermentation was carried out by the yeasts naturally residing in wooden barrels and other vessels to produce sake. However, because sake was so precious that a prohibition on drinking was imposed on farmers, during the Asuka period (around 600 to 700) the clear upper part of the sake was offered to the nobility, while the thick, muddy part remained for the farmers to consume.
The Transformation of Sake
Until the Heian period (794 to around 1185), sake brewing was carried out within the imperial court. However, during the tumultuous Sengoku period (1467 to 1568), as the nation fell into disorder, skilled brewers dispersed into society, and sake production began to take place in many places—from liquor shops to shrines. By the Kamakura period (1185 to 1333), commerce flourished, and sake was circulated as a valuable commodity. Around this time, brewing methods such as pasteurization (hi-ire) and multiple parallel fermentations (dan-jikomi) had already been developed.
In the Edo period (1603 to 1867), sake brewing spread even to small rural villages. The “Dōmō Shuzōki”, written in the early Edo era, contains detailed descriptions of brewing principles, technical explanations, and management of tools, indicating that the same sake brewing techniques using rice koji as today had already been established. As sake became a familiar part of common people’s lives, the shogunate government introduced the “sake stock system”, which imposed taxes on sake and regulated its production.
With the abolition of the sake stock system during the Meiji period (1868 to 1912), new brewing licenses could be obtained, leading to an increase in the number of sake breweries. Accompanied by advances in science, sophisticated rice polishing machines and enamel tanks began to be used, improving both brewing techniques and sake quality. However, during the Showa period (1926 to 1989), wars caused rice shortages and restrictions, leading to a temporary decline in sake production. The sale of sake became license-controlled and eventually rationed, with the government tightening tax laws. This period also saw a rise in the production of synthetic sake due to these constraints.
The Turning Point of Sake
After the war ended, the demand for sake surged dramatically. At the same time, various alcoholic beverages from around the world were imported into Japan, increasing competition. This marked a turning point from focusing on quantity to prioritizing quality.
Starting in the Heisei era (1989 to 2019), sake production shifted from mass-producing cheap sake to crafting higher-quality products. Ginjo sake became hugely popular, and premium sake like, unfiltered, unpasteurized, and undiluted sake known as “muroka namagenshu “also gained attention. Today, sake has diversified further, with a wide variety of unique products such as sparkling sake, cloudy sake (nigori), and sake brewed using traditional “kimoto”methods.
The Relationship Between Culture and Sake
In Shinto, sake has long been offered to the gods as a sacred offering. After the offering, the sake—called omiki—is shared among people, who believe that by drinking the same sake as the gods, they receive divine blessings. Even today, traditional ceremonies include sake offerings, and during seasonal events such as New Year’s, Setsubun, cherry blossom viewing (hanami), and moon viewing (tsukimi), sake is almost always served. The relationship between Japanese culture and sake is deep, making sake an indispensable part of social gatherings that connect people. With a sense of romance, let us cherish sake, enjoy it respectfully, and pass down this tradition.
